Avian Influenza Essay Example

Avian Influenza Essay Example Avian Influenza Paper Avian Influenza Paper Essay Topic: The Wild Duck Avian Influenza Introduction Bird flu in most cases begins with discomfort of lower respiratory ways and in unusual casesfrom upper respiratory air-ways. Elevated viral titer is isolated from pharynx but not from nose. Initial symptoms of the H5N1 influenza are: high grade fever, mild cold, cough and shortness of breath. Practically all patients develop viral pneumonia complicating to secondary bacterial infection, mild to severe respiratory distress, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Conjunctivitis is entity. Sometimes gastrointestinal disorder develops earlier than respiratory symptoms. Avian influenza viruses are shed in respiratory secretions and feces of birds. Infected ducks, for example, shed virus for at least 30 days. Influenza virus from the feces of waterfowl can be recovered from surface water. Avian species develop infection that ranges from asymptomatic to lethal. Avian influenza has caused major outbreaks in poultry farms.   Influenza virus can undergo genetic mutations in hemagglutinin or neuraminidase (antigens on the surface of the virus) that can lead to epidemics. Much less commonly, a completely new hemagglutinin or neuraminidase emerges- with the new genetic material coming from animals. This genetic shift typically leads to pandemics. Early chronology: 1929 Last evidence (serologic) of circulation in humans of a swine-like influenza virus 1930 Isolation of an influenza virus from swine 1933 First isolation of an influenza virus from humans Until 1995, only three of the 15 influenza hemagglutinins that had been identified were known to cause infections in humans. Birds have all 15 identified hemagglutinins and nine neuraminidases. New influenza viruses often emerge from southern China, a region characterized by a large, densely settled human population and abundant pigs and ducks living in close proximity to humans. Until events in Hong Kong in 1997, scientists thought that avian influenza posed no direct threat to humans. In 1997, after causing influenza outbreaks on chicken farms, avian influenza (H5N1) spread to humans (Claas et al. 1998). Eighteen human cases were confirmed, six of them fatal. Infection was concentrated in children and young adults, unlike the pattern in most outbreaks where morbidity and death are most common in older adults. The virus recovered from humans was identical to that found in birds (Subbarao et al. 1998). Epidemiological studies suggested that there had been multiple independent introductions of the influenza virus into the human population from birds, but that very limited person-to-person spread occurred. At the time of the human cases, there were estimated to be 300–600 live bird markets in Hong Kong, where mixing of different avian species (ducks, chickens, pheasants, pigeons, wild birds) was possible. When the Hong Kong live bird markets were studied , 10% or more of birds were found to be shedding H5N1, in multiple avian species (geese, chickens, ducks). The birds (more than one million) were killed, and no additional human cases of H5N1 have been documented. In 1999, human infection with H9N2, another avian influenza strain widespread in Asia, was also documented for the first time in humans, at a time of enhanced surveillance (Peiris et al. 1999). The events in Hong Kong have led to heightened global surveillance for influenza in humans and animals. There was reason to be concerned about the events in Hong Kong, a densely populated city with extensive links to the rest of the world. In 1993, there were an estimated 41.4 million passenger movements (boat, train, car, airplane) and from Hong Kong. The influenza viruses that afflict humans are divided into three types: A, B, and C. Influenza A is responsible for the epidemics and infects not only man but also pigs, horses, seals, and a large variety of birds. Indeed, influenza A has been isolated worldwide from both domestic and wild birds, primarily waterbirds including ducks, geese, terns, and gulls and domesticated birds such as turkeys, chickens, quail, pheasants, geese, and ducks. Studies of wild ducks in Canada from 1975 to 1994 indicated that up to 20 percent of the juveniles were infected, and fecal samples from their lakeshore habitats contained the virus. These birds usually shed the virus from five to seven days (with a maximum of thirty days) after becoming infected even though they show no sign of the disease. Obviously, this virus and its hosts have adapted mutually over many centuries and created a reservoir that ensures perpetuation of the virus. Duck virus has been implicated in outbreaks of influenza in animal s such as seals, whales, pigs, horses, and turkeys. Extensive analysis of the viruss genetic structure, or nucleic acid sequences, supports the hypotheses that mammalian influenza viruses, including those infecting man, may well originate in aquatic birds. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003) Subtypes of influenza A, the various strains of these avian viruses can be classified as either highly pathogenic or as of low pathogenicity, based on their genetic features and the severity of illness they cause in birds. There are currently 27 potential forms of the three subtypes of avian influenza viruses differentiated by variations in the neuraminidase surface antigen. Thus, H5, H7, and H9 avian influenza viruses, so named for their hemagglutinin surface antigen, can each be matched with nine possible neuraminidase surface antigens, N1, N2, N3, etc. Thus, there could be H5N1 through H5N9, H7N1 through H7N9, and H9N1 through H9N9 strains. H9 viruses appear to be of low pathogenicity, while H5 and H7 viruses can be highly pathogenic for birds. However, low pathogenic forms of these viruses seem to be the cause of most outbreaks among poultry causing only mild or imperceptible illness and low mortality rates. Nonetheless, both H5 and H7 can develop high levels of pathogenicity in which case mortality rates in poultry flocks can reach 100%. The natural history of avian influenza viruses is characterized by spread through infected nasal, respiratory and fecal material, and a reservoir state in healthy birds. (Pascal James Imperato, 2005) www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Pathogenesis The pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in humans has not been clearly explained. Apoptosis might also play a vital part. Apoptosis has been observed in alveolar epithelial cells, which is the major target cell type for the viral replication. Many apoptotic leukocytes were observed in the lungs of patients who died on day 6 of illness. Apoptosis may play a major role in the pathogenesis of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans by destroying alveolar epithelial cells. This pathogenesis causes pneumonia and destroys leukocytes, leading to leucopenia, which is an outstanding clinical feature of influenza (H5N1) virus in humans. Whether observed apoptotic cells were a directly related to viral replication or outcome of an over activation of the immune system needs further studies. (Uiprasertkul M, 2007) www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm Infected birds were the major source of the H5N1 influenza virus among humans in Asia. Mainly humans became infected by eating infected birds, by poor hygiene procedures when cooking infected birds, or by close contact with infected poultry. (Reina J, 2002). Certain birds, particularly water birds, act as hosts for influenza viruses by carrying the virus in their intestines and shedding it. Infected birds shed virus in saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. Susceptible birds can become infected with avian influenza virus when they have contact with contaminated nasal, respiratory, or fecal material from infected birds. Fecal-to-oral transmission is the most common mode of spread among birds. Most often, the wild birds that are the hosts for the virus do not get sick, but they can spread influenza to other birds. (CDC, 2006) www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm At present spread of the H5N1 influenza from human to human by air born route has not been registered, but enduring monitoring for identification mutation and adaptation of H5N1 influenza virus to human is needed. Most studies performed in avian viral strains elucidates that virulence is a polygenic phenomenon. However, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase and the genes codifying these substances (genes 4 and 6) play a vital role in viral pathogenesis. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007). Avian strains can be classified as virulent or avirulent according to the capability of hemagglutinin to be triggered by endoproteases of the respiratory tract merely or by proteases from other tissues. This ability is based on the ever going mutations that lead to the substitution of the normal amino acids at the point of hemagglutinin hydrolysis by the other basic amino acids that determine the amplifi cation of the spectrum of hydrolysis and activation. Neuraminidase contributes in the acquisition of virulence through its ability to attach to plasminogen and by escalating the concentration of activating proteases. Adaptation to the host, by recognition of the cell receptor, is an additional factor determining the virulence and interspecies spread of avian strains. (Reina J, 2002) Transmission to mammals Influenza A viruses from aquatic birds grow poorly in human cells, and vice versa. However, both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs. We have known that pigs are susceptible to influenza viruses that infect man ever since the veterinarian J. S. Koen first observed pigs with influenza symptoms closely resembling those of humans. Retrospective tests of human blood indicate that the swine virus isolated by Shope in 1928 was similar to the human virus and likely responsible for the human epidemic. Swine influenza still persists year-round and is the cause of most respiratory diseases in pigs. Interestingly, in 1976, swine influenza virus isolated from military recruits at Fort Dix was indistinguishable from virus isolates obtained from a man and a pig on a farm in Wisconsin. The examiners concluded that animals, especially aquatic birds and pigs, can be reservoirs of influenza virus. When such viruses or their components mix with human influenza virus, dramatic geneti c shifts can follow, creating the potential of a new epidemic for humans. The influenza virus continually evolves by antigenic shift and drift. Early studies in this area by Robert Webster and Graeme Laver established the importance of monitoring influenza strains in order to predict future epidemics. Antigenic shifts are major changes in the structure of the influenza virus that determines its effect on immune responses. Of the viral proteins, the hemagglutinin (H), a major glycoprotein of the virus, plays a central role in infection, because breakdown of hemagglutinin into two smaller units is required for virus infectivity. (Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA, 2003). Shifts in the composition of the hemagglutinin (H) or neuraminidase (N), another glycoprotein, of influenza virus were observed in the 1933, 1957, 1968, and 1977 epidemics: 1933: H1N1 1957: H2N2 (Asian flu) 1968: H3N2 (Hong Kong flu) 1977: reappearance of H1N1, called the Russian flu The reappearance in 1977 of the Russian flu, a virus first isolated in 1933, raises the uneasy possibility that a return of the 1918-19 influenza epidemics with its devastation of human life is possible and perhaps likely. In March of 1997, part of influenza virus nucleic acid was isolated from a formalin-fixed lung tissue sample of a twenty-one-year-old Army private that died during the 1918-19 Spanish influenza pandemic. Since the first influenza viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, characterization of the 1918-19 strain relied on molecular definition of the viruss RNA. Chemical evidence indicated a novel H1N1 sequence of a viral strain that differed from all other subsequently characterized influenza strains and that the 1918 HA human sequence correlated best with swine influenza strains. Once the entire sequence is on hand, a virulent marker for the influenza virus associated with killing over 675,000 Americans from 1918 to 1919 may be uncovered and a vaccine planned that might abort the return of this virus form of influenza.   When such antigenic shifts occur, the appearance of disease is predictable. Therefore, surveillance centers have been established all over the world where isolates of influenza are obtained and studied for alterations, primarily in the hemagglutinin. According to the evidence from these centers, isolates identified in late spring are excellent indicators of potential epidemics in the following winter. Both avian and human influenza viruses can replicate in pigs, and genetic reassortants or combinations between them can be demonstrated experimentally. A likely scenario for such an antigenic shift in nature occurs when the prevailing human strain of influenza A virus and an avian influenza virus concurrently infect a pig, which serves as a mixing vessel. Reassortants containing genes derived mainly from the human virus but with a hemagglutinin and polymerase gene from the avian source are able to infect humans and initiate a new pandemic. In rural Southeast Asia, the most densely populated area of the world; hundreds of millions of people live and work in close contact with domesticated pigs and ducks. This is the likely reason for influenza pandemics in China. Epidemics other than the 1918-19 catastrophes have generally killed 50,000 or fewer individuals, although within a year over one million people had been infected with these new strains. Conclusion Three major hypotheses have been put forth to explain antigenic shifts. First, as described above, a new virus can come from a reassortant in which an avian influenza virus gene substitutes for one of the human influenza virus genes. The genome of human influenza group A contains eight RNA segments, and current wisdom is that the circulating influenza hemagglutinin in humans has been replaced with an avian hemagglutinin. A second explanation for antigenic shifts that yield new epidemic viruses is that strains from other mammals or birds become infectious for humans. Some believe that this is the cause of the Spanish influenza virus epidemic in 1918-19, with the transmission of swine influenza virus to humans. A third possibility is that newly emerging viruses have actually remained hidden and unchanged somewhere but suddenly come forth to cause an epidemic, as the Russian H1N1 virus once did. H1N1 first was isolated in 1933, then disappeared when replaced by the Asian H2N2 in 1957. H owever, twenty years later the virus reappeared in a strain isolated in northern China and subsequently spread to the rest of the world. This virus was identical in all its genes to one that caused human influenza epidemics in the 1950s. (Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI, 2007) Where the virus was for twenty years is not known. Could it have been inactivated in a frozen state, preserved in an animal reservoir, or obscured in some other way? If this is so, will the Spanish influenza virus also return, and what will be the consequences for the human population? In addition to antigenic shift, which signifies major changes in existing viruses, antigenic drift permits slight alterations in viral structure. These follow pinpoint changes (mutations) in amino acids in various antigen domains that relate to immune pressure, leading to selection. For example, the hemagglutinin molecule gradually changes while undergoing antigenic drift. Such mutations allow the virus to escape from attack by antibodies generated during a previous bout of infection. Because these antibodies would ordinarily protect the host by removing the virus, this escape permits the related infection to remain in the population. With these difficulties of antigenic shift and, drift and animal reservoirs, it is not surprising that making an influenza vaccine as effective as those for smallpox, pohovirus, yellow fever, or measles is difficult to achieve. Another complication is that immunity to influenza virus is incomplete; that is, even in the presence of an immune response, influenza can still occur. Nevertheless, the challenge of developing vaccines based on surveillance studies has been met. A chemically treated, formalin-inactivated virus has been formulated in a vaccine that is 30 to 70 percent effective in increasing resistance to influenza virus. The vaccine decreases the frequency of influenza attacks or, at least, the severity of disease in most recipients, although protection is not absolute. In addition, the secondary bacterial infections that may accompany influenza are today treatable with potent antibacterial drugs previously unavailable. Nonetheless, of the plagues that visit humans, influenza is among those that require constant surveillance, because we can be certain that some form of influenza will continue to return. References: CDC. Spread of Avian Influenza Viruses among Birds; Journal of Environmental Health, Vol. 68, 2006.www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/spread.htm Claas, E. C. J., A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, R. van Beek, J. C. De Jong, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, D. A. Senne, S. Krauss, K. F. Shortridge, and R. G. Webster. 1998. Human influenza A H5N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Lancet 351:472–477. Gu J, Xie Z, Gao Z, Liu J, Korteweg C, Ye J, Lau LT, Lu J, Gao Z, Zhang B, McNutt MA, Lu M, Anderson VM, Gong E, Yu AC, Lipkin WI. H5N1 infection of the respiratory tract and beyond: a molecular pathology study; Lancet Sep 29; 370(9593):1106-8, 2007 Pascal James Imperato. The Growing Challenge of Avian Influenza; Journal of Community Health, Vol. 30, 2005. www.springerlink.com/index/H6427776HH34G857.pdf Peiris, M., K. Y. Yuen, C. W. Leung, K. H. Chan, P. L. S. Ip, R. W. M. Lai, W. K. Orr, and K. F. Shortridge. 1999. Human infection with influenza H9N2. Lancet 354:916–917. Reina J. Factors affecting the virulence and pathogenicity of avian and human viral strains (influenza virus type A)] Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin; 20(7):346-53 (ISSN: 0213-005X) Hospital Universitario Son Dureta, Palma de Mallorca, Espaà ±a, 2002 direct.bl.uk/research/48/44/RN119578176.html Suarez DL, Spackman E, Senne DA. Update on molecular epidemiology of H1, H5, and H7 influenza virus infections in poultry in North America; Avian Dis. 2003; 47(3 Suppl): 888-97 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez Subbarao, K., A. Klimov, J. Katz, H. Renery, W. Lim, H. Hall, M. Perdue, D. Swayne, C. Bender, J. Huang, M. Hemphill, T. Rowe, M. Shaw, X. Xu, K. Fukuda, and N. Cox. 1998. Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with a fatal respiratory illness. Science 279:393–396. Uiprasertkul M. Apoptosis and Pathogenesis of Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus in Humans Emerg Infect Dis; 13(5):708-12 (ISSN: 1080-6040) Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.2007 www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/5/708.htm

Formal and Informal Powers of Congress and the U.S. President Essays

Formal and Informal Powers of Congress and the U.S. President Essays Formal and Informal Powers of Congress and the U.S. President Paper Formal and Informal Powers of Congress and the U.S. President Paper Formal and Informal Powers of Congress Under the Constitution, Congress is charged with carrying out the legislative functions of government. The framers of the Constitution wanted the lawmaking and national policy role to be in the hands of a representative body. The formal powers, structure, and procedures of the national legislature are outlined in considerable detail in Article l, Section 8, of the Constitution. These powers are extensive, however as a means of sharing powers and functions between separate institutions, most of hem are shared with the other two branches, particularly the executive. Congress has the power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises; all duties, imposts and excises must be uniform throughout the United States. To borrow money. To coin money, set its value, and punish counterfeiting. To raise and support an army and naw and make rules for their governance. To declare war. To establish a post office. To establish rules for becoming a citizen and bankruptcy. To issue patents and copyrights to inventors and authors. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court. To define and punish piracies, felonies on the high seas, and crimes against the law of nations. : To exercise exclusive legislative powers over the seat of government and over places purchased as federal facilities. At the end of Section 8, the Constitution broadly implies, Congress has the power to do what is necessary and proper for carrying into execution all powers vested by the Constitution; also known as the Elastic Clause. Another important informal power is the ability to investigate the executive branch or one of their agencies. Also, Congress can hold hearings. 2. Formal and Informal Powers of the President The role and powers of the President of United States is outlined in Article II of the Constitution. Compared to the explicit powers of the Congress, the Constitution grants far fewer explicit powers to the President, the ambiguity and vagueness of Article II have made it possible for presidents to expand their authority greatly beyond that specifically listed in the Constitution. Under Article II, the President has the following formal powers. The power of appointment; the President is responsible for making about 6,000 appointments the most important of which are his cabinet and federal Judges (most of these must be approved by the Senate). As Commander-in-chief the President is the final authority in military matters and ultimately is responsible for the entire military might of the United States. The President has the right to conduct diplomatic missions and set foreign policy on behalf of the United States. The President has the power to pardon or commute the sentence of convicted criminals. The President has the ability to declare a 90 day period of Emergency during which he can use the full force of the ilitary without seeking permission from Congress either in the form of a declaration of war or through funding. The President can veto any bill signed by Congress, preventing it from passing unless both Houses can muster a 2/3rd majority in favor of passing the bill. In most cases, a veto will kill a proposed bill. Probably the most important informal power of the President is his ability to influence the legislative agenda and set economic policy. As the most powerful single individual in the U. S. government, the President is able to throw his weight around and influence areas not under his direct control.

Using of Tidal Model of Mental Health Nursing Essay

Using of Tidal Model of Mental Health Nursing - Essay Example As a link between the doctor and client, the nurse needs to be aware of minute details that could play significant roles in treatment and recovery. The present case is of an 80 year old female within an APATT based community setting, who has a history of mental illness from before the present incidence. The Tidal Model of Care shall be used in the process of assessment and treatment to enable recovery. The Role of the Professional Nurse and Its Impact on Patient Care As a link between the client and doctor, the nurse plays a key role at each stage of treatment. The RCN defines Nursing as â€Å"the use of clinical judgment in the provision of care to enabled people to improve, maintain or recover health; to cope with health problems, and to achieve the best possible quality of life, whatever their disease or disability, until death† (RCN, 2003). The professional nurse has a range of responsibilities and roles (GMC, 1995) that parallel in importance to that of the doctor. Irresp ective of the reasons for this growth in the responsibilities shouldered by the nursing community; an evident fact is that nursing now has a strong impact on the process of care and recovery experienced by a client. It is thus necessary to establish processes that are most beneficial, and to develop a perspective that allows the nurse to interpret the process of treatment to the specific needs of the client. The Tidal Model of Care provides just this philosophical approach to mental health nursing. The Tidal Model A nursing model has been defined as â€Å"A collection of interrelated concepts that provides direction for nursing practice; research and education that approaches the nursing process in a logical, systematic way and influences the very data the nurse collects.† (Rambo, 1984). The Tidal Model of Mental Health Nursing was suggested by Professors Phil Barker, Chris Stevenson and Poppy Buchanan-Barker amongst others. The basis for the approach is the continuous change in all individuals at all times Kitson, 1999. The Tidal Model attempts to make sense of the personal experiences of people, and the role these experiences play in recovery. It believes that a client is capable of leading their own recovery instead of being directed by professionals (Barkway, 2009). The model is based on 6 philosophical assumptions: Barker (2008). 1. Virtue of curiosity: Genuine curiosity can help the professional learn about experiences central to the clients’ illness and recovery. 2. Power of resourcefulness: Available resources need to be identified and used effectively to aid recovery. 3. Respect for the person’s wishes: Patients are cognisant of their own needs and abilities. It is important to listen to them. 4. Paradox of crisis: Every crisis situation can be used as a pointer to the needs of the individual; and can be used to fuel eventual recovery. 5. All goals must belong to the person: Ownership over recovery goals gives the client a feeling of control over the direction and pace of recovery; and is important in the long term maintenance of health. 6. Pursuing elegance: It is easy to be overrun by complex and tedious treatments. The most optimal treatment is often the one that requires the least effort in covering all chosen goals. These assumptions have become the base for the development of a set of 10 commitments that a nurse using the Tidal

Physics lab reports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Physics lab reports - Essay Example This property allows the convenient computation of the density of the rock samples given that the volume of the displaced water (for instance, 10 grams of displaced water has a volume of 10 cm3) will equal the volume of the submerged object. Following the weighing of the rocks in air as well as in water, the buoyancy, volume and density of the rocks were computed. The buoyancy, which is the same as the weight of the displaced water, was taken as the difference in the weight of the rocks in air and while submerged in water. This is also equal to the volume of the rocks in cm3. The density was calculated by dividing the weight of the rocks in air by the volume of the rocks. The results of the experiment showed that rocks # 3 and 115 have densities 3.02 g/cm3 and 2.27 g/cm3, which are higher than that of water. This suggests that the rocks will be completely submerged in water. Indeed, the rocks were completed submerged in water, thus validating our results. 2. The volume will remain the same. This is because ice being less dense than water, floats in water. That is the volume of ice is greater that of water of equal mass. Thus the volume decreases when ice melts. 2. The curved canopy umbrella accelerates air flow over the top causing the pressure to drop as stated by Bernoulli. You have a low pressure area on top and a high pressure area on the bottom, naturally the umbrella flips

The potential impact of the current debt crisis in Europe on the U.S Essay

The potential impact of the current debt crisis in Europe on the U.S. finanancial market - Essay Example Thus major U.S. political allies could lose their positions, weakening consumer confidence in Euro zone. Europe is the major American exports market with 22.5 % of the total U.S. exports. This implies that U.S. exports will be hurt. Moreover, considering since 2008 government spending and exports have been the major U.S. economy drivers. The debt crisis will halt the recovery of the economy, thereby increasing the unemployment rate. In addition, according to FED Chairman Ben, U.S. has little financial exposure to the indebted countries. Financial markets in Europe and America are highly correlated. This implies that if the current debt worsens further, it will affect France and Germany, where major U.S. banks have significant exposure. This implies that due to the indebtedness of European banks, other banks will be hesitant to give credit on the fear of failure of payment. In case of extension of credit they would demand more security before credit maturity translating to enforced asset sales. This will drive the cost of borrowing high. This would drive down commodities prices and seize up of financial markets, another 2008 Lehman Brothers Scenario. In the financial market, debt crisis has led to great speculative trading. This is due to the uncertainties and recession fears in the market poised by the Euro zone debt crisis. This has translated to loss of major indices like the Dow Jones, stocks and variances in commodity prices. This is because many of the companies in United States have affiliates in Europe, leaving them exposed to the debt crisis. This has further translates to low investor confidence, and even shunning of financial markets. In the event of further debt crisis, it may result to the collapse of these markets (Trahan and Krantz, 2011). The market turmoil caused by the Euro zone crisis will negatively affect the U.S. household retirement and saving funds. This will amount to American household losing part of

Public Bus Transportation In Kota Kinabalu

Public Bus Transportation In Kota Kinabalu Currently, bus is the main public transportation in the city of Kota Kinabalu. Despite being perceived as less comfortable, less physically attractive, non-punctual and unsafe, it still functioning to bring passengers to their destinations. This research paper aims to provide a critical overview of the public bus importance at the past, present and future time. It is crucial to identify the reason why bus is important in providing commuting service to the citizen since this information is a useful input to the policy maker. The reasons for its importance are discussed together with several issues such as public bus current level of performance, increasing number of private vehicle on road and the absence of specific plan to improve public bus transportation. This study is qualitative in nature where data were mostly derived from observation and secondary sources. The preliminary studys findings showed public bus is an important mode of public transportation in Kota Kinabalu in the pa st and the present and is likely to continue to be so in the foreseeable future due to the demand from the low income earners, wide destination coverage and concern for the increasing price of car fuel as well as to traffic congestion problem. Therefore, the government should seriously consider the bus in the public transportation planning by providing specific plan for its future development. Keywords: public transportation system, public bus, public transport planning INTRODUCTION Tran and Kleiner (2005) cited in Belwal and Belwal (2010), public transportation is defined as transportation by a conveyance that provides continuing general or special transportation to the public; excluding school buses, charter and sightseeing service. An efficient transportation system is one of the basic components of the social, economic, and physical structure in the urbanized society and it has to be competitive and attractive to the transit seekers (Ibid). It is essential for every government all over the world to develop better transportation system for its citizens. Better system is a system that is able to provide affordable, attractive, comfortable, punctual and safe commuting services to the citizens. According to Nandi (2008), an ideal transport system is a system that had been fully integrated, able to provide safe transport network, supports social and economic regeneration and ensures good access for all which, is operated to the highest standards to protect the en vironment and ensure quality of life. It is a dream for every government and citizen to have efficient transportation system. To realize the dream, continuous effort should be made. Long run strategy should be to manage for the growth of transport demand to provide for the efficient movement of people and goods. Bus service is indeed important since it provides mobility for all since many people do not have access to cars it is also increase person capacity in heavily traveled corridors and it preserves urban land for more productive use and is more energy efficient than driving (Levinson, 2000). In his study, bus is not only providing line-haul and feeder services, offer special transit service for the elderly and handicapped and in the very large cities but they also complement and feed rail transit lines. In United State of America, public transportation is commonly associated with the nations major urban-area subway (heavy-rail) or commuter-rail systems, approximately 59 percent of all public transportation trips are carried on buses (Cambridge Systematics Inc, 2008). Therefore, maintaining and improving bus service will be essential in keeping urban areas vital and vibrant in the years ahead. The basic purpose to develop the public transportation is to help the citizens to make a trip easily and ensure the normal operation of fundamentals social organizations and their activities as well as brings enhancements to the city environment in a quite comprehensive range. () At the moment in Malaysia, significant improvement on public transportation had only been seen in several main cities such as Kuala Lumpur and Pulau Pinang. The difference of these cities from the others is that, apart from having various option of modern transportation such as LRT and Monorail System, they also have an integrated bus system namely RapidKL and RapidPenang which are characterized by attractive appearance, strict monitoring system, standardization and reliable schedule. In the city of Kota Kinabalu, the capital city of Sabah, bus is the main public transportation. However, public bus performance is below par in terms of comfort, physical appearance, punctuality and safety. It is believed that the effective and robust public bus transportation service provision is crucial and necessary in realizing the objective of the 6th National Key Result Area (NKRA) which is aimed to increase the utilization rate and to sustain the Malaysia transport system (Jayaraman et. al., 2011 ). Public bus transportation is important not only to provide commuting services to the people but also facilitate the growth of economy in a city. It creates accessibility to business to market their goods and services. Since the last three decades, government at federal, state and local levels has formulated and implemented various plans to improve public transportation but there is still no significant improvement have been seen on the bus service. In addition, the increasing number of private cars on roads shows the shift in preference of people from using a public bus into driving their own personal car. The aim of this paper is to provide critical overview of the importance of public bus. This finding is important for planning purpose. Since there are very few studies deeply discussed about its importance, the findings will contribute to the body knowledge in the public bus literature. The public transportation available in Kota Kinabalu city is only public bus and taxi. The fact that, the public bus is more utilized by the public because of its lower cost indicates its importance. PROBLEM STATEMENT Since the last three decades, government at federal, state and local levels has formulated and implemented various plan to improve public transportation in Kota Kinabalu City but there is still no significant improvement can be been seen especially relating to the bus service. Furthermore, the increasing number of private cars on roads shows the shift in preference of people from using a public bus into driving their own personal car. The question is why this happen? Is bus not as important to the local residents as it use to be? The aim of this paper is to provide critical overview of the importance of public bus to the people. The finding of this research is important for policy planning purpose. Besides, it provides the body knowledge in bus transportation literature since there is only few study deeply discussed about its importance. It is believed that the effective and robust public bus transportation service provision is crucial and necessary in realizing the objective of the 6th NKRA which is aimed to increase the utilization rate and to sustain the Malaysia transport system (Jayaraman et. al., 2011). METHODOLOGY For data collection, the methodology used in this study was limited to observation and secondary data only. The observation method was conducted on daily basis from 1st August 2012 to 15st September 2012. Large amount of information was collected from local newspaper report especially from Sabah Times, Daily Express and Borneo Post. Official documents such as policy statements were part of the data collected. Through these methods, thorough analyses regarding the importance of public bus in Kota Kinabalu at the present and future time were made. REASONS FOR IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC BUS TRANSPORTATION IN KOTA KINABALU Demands from Low Income Earner Low-income groups tend to use their car relatively less often (Steg, 2003). In the city of Kota Kinabalu, the bus service is highly demanded by the low income earner (monthly income below RM2300) although the public bus service is poor in terms of comfort, punctuality and safety. In the 1990s, bus was considered important because few people could afford to buy car. Presently, bus is still needed by the low income earners. Owning car has been greatly facilitated recently through simpler car loan procedure. However, although this facilitated the low and medium income earners to own car, some of them may still do not want to buy car because of other important commitments such as household expenditure and utility expenditure. As a result, they still need to take bus to go to their workplace and even for outing purposes. Thus, bus is important to their daily life. In Kota Kinabalu, certain residential areas which are populated mostly by low income earners such as Kuala Menggatal, Taman In dah Permai, Taman Sri Maju, Universiti Apartment Phase 1 and Phase 2 are relying on the bus service for transportation. Daily observation that had been made on 1st August 2012 until 1st September 2012 at these residential areas, it was found that most of residents work as laborers, chefs, nurses, salespersons, promoters and waiters used bus to go to the workplace. Wide Destination Coverage Public bus has wider destinations coverage encompassing both the urban and sub-urban areas compared to LRT and Monorail, which have fixed routes. Therefore their destination coverage is limited. The bus has important role not only to accommodate the transport needs of the increasing commuters but also as feed as in routes not covered by these modern transportation systems. Eventhough in Kuala Lumpur modern transportation networks namely Kereta Api Tanah Melayu (KTM), Monorail System and LRT, pub bus is still being used to take passengers to the KTM, LRT and Monorail stations and terminals. Due to the need of feeder service and to improve the existing public transportation system, RapidKL was then decided in 2004, took over the main part of transportation in the city. In Kota Kinabalu, bus is important in the absence of modern transportation and the role it plays will become challenging once the modern rail system introduced. The table show below indicates the zones covered by the pub lic bus transportation at Kota Kinabalu in 2006. Concern to the Price of Car Fuel The concern of car users about increasing fuel price also contributes to the continued importance of public bus service. Malaysias public transportation especially public bus is perceived of unable to meet citizens needs satisfactorily. Many claim that if the public transport is improved, they are willing to use it instead of paying for outrageous petrol prices and tolls and ending up stuck in traffic jams (Kambala, 2007). The question is, when bus services improved in Kota Kinabalu, will the local citizens willing to shift from using private vehicle into the public one? From the literature, it was found that public bus will be a critical travelling option among the private car user when the price of the fuel increases. When fuel price increase, the monthly spending will increase and the probability of people shifting from the using their own car to take the public bus will increase. Public bus still become the option for the residents irrespective the income background especially wh en the price of fuel has increased and their monthly salary cannot cover all the expenses. Problem of Traffic Congestion Based on the data provided by the statistic department in a survey of Sabah household in 2009, more than 50% of the residents in Kota Kinabalu go to work by personal automobile while the rest use the public bus or other modes. The increasing number of private vehicles on roads has caused congestion and pollution. The growing community concerns about traffic congestion, sprawl, air pollution, and sustainability, the progressive revitalization of cities and towns, and continued advances in transport technology demand for better bus transit in the new century (Levinson, 2000). In another observation done in Likas, Sepanggar and Sulaman from 15th August 2012 to 15th September 2012, it was found that there traffic congestions during peak hours. The peak hours in Kota Kinabalu during weekdays is range from 7.00 to 8.30 in the morning, and noon12.00 to 2.00pm and 4.30 to 7.00 at the evening. It was also found that, the roads in Sepanggar, Inanam and Likas area are most congested during peak hour. Currently, most of people still insist to use their car. People will only shift to public bus if the public bus system is reliable. Reliable here means available everywhere, arrive on time, cheap as well as safe and comfortable to be used. According to Lo Su Yin, the head of Persatuan Arkitek Malaysia (PAM) Sabah, the medium and long term solution for the problem of traffic congestion is a well planned public transport system Transport for tertiary level students Young people are regular user of public bus transportation especially at tertiary level students. The Chief Executive of Passenger Focus, Anthony Smith, quoted a research that showed almost 50 percent of bus passengers are under 29, making the bus very much a young persons product and more than 50 percent of students frequently use the bus and depend on it to go to their education or training premise (The Telegraph, 2012). As a center of education in the state of Sabah, the number of student in Kota Kinabalu is high. Most of them neither have car nor driving license to drive car. Thus, they are totally dependence on the public bus service. Furthermore, it was found that many students stayed at Sepanggar, Likas, Sembulan and city center such as students from Universiti Teknologi Mara as well as from Advanced Management and Technology Centre (PTPL), Cosmopoint College, Masterskill College, Mahsa College, Sabah Foundation College, and Polytechnics. Due to large population of students in Kota Kinabalu, public bus is important to fulfill their transport needs. For example, University students from Universiti Teknologi Mara Sabah branch, always use the public bus transport (operated by Tuaran United Transport Company Sdn Bhd) to go to the centre of the city during weekends for outing purpose. DISCUSSION The findings of this paper are in line with the findings of previous research. For example, according to Madzlan and Nookfakhriah (2010), public bus transportation is important to help reduce traffic congestion, save money and time, as well as to reduce pollution. There are no commuters or train services that provide full coverage of transportation in Kota Bharu unlike Kuala Lumpur and Klang Valley (Ibid). Therefore, demand for public bus service is very high in this city. In Kota Bharu and Penang, where the commuter train service is not available, the public bus is the major means for its population. The Kota Kinabalu City Hall (KKCH) Strategic Plan 2011-2015, focus more on upgrading and improving the infrastructure of the public bus transportation system. For example plans to build uniform bus stop, 45 Lay-by for bus (to be completed in 2012), upgrading the Terminal Wawasan at the centre of town (to be completed in 2012), Terminal at the North, Inanam (to be completed in 2015), Inter Terminal Link at Stadium Likas, Masjid Bandaraya and Masjid Negeri (to be accomplished in 2015), Terminal Kepayan at the South, (to be accomplished in 2015) and Park Ride facilities. In 2011, some of the project has been implemented under the Public Transportation Financial Group fund, where RM8 million spent to upgrade the Wawasan Bus Terminal and RM5 million to establish a lay-by bus and taxi in the city (Sabah Times, 2011). The public transportation central plan also include the plan to develop water taxi, monorail system, rail system (Kota Kinabalu Structure Plan 2030). The plan to build the Park and Ride facilities, the upgrading terminals, adding more bus stations, establishment of LRT and Monorail system as well as plan to develop water taxi service indicated the intention of the government to provide better public transportation in the city. The government has done several improvements on bus but these efforts are not commensurate with the importance of public bus to the general public in Kota Kinabalu. In other word, the government has not done enough to improve the bus system service. Transportation system in this city will not work effectively and efficiently if the public bus system is not significantly improved. That is, the public buses need to be continuously maintained, clean, safe and comfortable to be used as well as punctual and always available. For the time being, public bus plays impo rtant role as the main public transportation in Kota Kinabalu. However, poor performance and a lack of proper management of bus are existing problems that yet to be solved. It is more preferable if the government finds solutions to the existing problems. The bus system should be improved first before developing new alternative modes of transportation. In the NKRA, there is also no clear and specific statement regarding the budget allocated to improve public bus transportation in the urban areas such as Kota Kinabalu apart from Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley. It is because no matter how modern mode of transportation that is planned to be established, public bus still have a place in urban and sub-urban areas. Due to its importance, public bus deserves to get more attention from all levels of government. It deserves to have specific budget allocation not only from the local government but from the federal and state governmenst as well. Based on the findings, several issues regarding bus transportation need to be addressed. Bus is important at the present and likely to be so in the foreseeable future. However, the findings of this study support previous study findings that certain issues need to be addressed for better bus service performance. For example, performance of public bus under private companies operation. It was found that, public transportation is poor when it was operated by the private company (Nicosia, 2001). According to Imran (2009), one of the failures of public transport policies is overstating the role of the private sector in public transport. In Kota Kinabalu, public buses are operated by private companies and there are complaints about the lack of comfort, maintenance, punctuality and safety. On the other hand, the bus system in Kuala Lumpur is mainly operated by RapidKL which is owned by the government. In Malacca, the state government takes over the operation of public bus transportation from the private authorities. Public transportation service will continue to be inefficient under the hand of private companies and the problems associated with it will be unresolved if there no aggressive intervention from the government sides. For example, in 1992, the large scale bus privatization without adequate regulation and coordination had created many problems in Delhi such as lengthy, zig-zag routes, long waiting times, completely unrel iable service, extreme overcrowding, illegal drivers, and speeding and reckless driving, competitions among buses, poor bus maintenance, lack of safety, noisy, and highly polluting which, add to the already severe congestion, safety, and air pollution problems (Putcher et al., 2004). Another issue that needs to be addressed is the increasing number of private vehicles on the roads. Public bus can be part of the solutions. However, it will never replace the dominant use of private car if no aggressive effort to improve the public bus system is made. For example, according to OToole (2011), buses will probably never replace the auto ­mobile as the dominant form of transporta ­tion in the United States of America unless with the use of the new-model buses which is significantly less expensive than driv ­ing. Only when the bus system in Kota Kinabalu City is restructured, people start continuously to shift from the use of private cars. Thus, the reasons of public bus transportations importance should be learned together with these issues so that actual situation for public bus transportation in this city would be able to be identified. CONCLUSION Public bus transportation is important in the past as well as the present time and will continue to be so in the foreseeable future due to the demand from the low income earners, tertiary level students, the public bus system wide destination coverage, concern for the increasing price of car fuel as well as traffic congestion problem. This research is only part of larger research where only the importance of the public bus system is discussed. Based on data collected so far, there is enough evidence to suggest the importance and the continuous importance of public bus transportation system.

Prejudice and Stereotyping in the Movie, Crash :: Film Movies Racism Race

Prejudice and Stereotyping in the Movie, Crash "Crash" is a movie that exposes different kinds of social and multicultural differences, giving us a quick example of how these conducts affect our society. Two of the behaviors observed, are Prejudice and Stereotyping. Identified as the causes of where all the events eradicate. These behaviors are viewed as thoughts and feelings that almost everyone has felt more than once. In the first scene we observe a Muslim man inside a firearm store, attempting to buy a gun. The owner is a white Caucasian male that presents a negative attitude towards the customer because of his Muslim background. This feeling triggers in the owner, negative attitudes based on the assimilation and stereotypes with the Muslim race. Being immediately associated with the Al Qaeda terrorist group, which was responsible for suicidal bombers that have killed thousand of Americans. This negative attitude and violence observed in this particular scene, is an example of Prejudice, known as a negative feeling and predisposition of behavior towards a group or any member belonging to that group (**). It is an issue that although it has always existed in humanity, it would be though to have dissipated in the 21st century. Taking in count that now in the in days we are better informed and educated to understand that one group's actions shouldn't be applied to stereotype the whole race. As far as personal experience, living in Miami,-Florida, as a none-Cuban Latin, makes it easier to have an insight in all kinds of prejudice and stereotypes within the same Hispanic society. This behavior makes it hard to not feel negatively judged by others who do belong to the majority group. Unfortunately prejudice is not simply an attitude that remains internal to its owner; it impacts behavior. When negative attitudes on the basis of differences translate into behavior, we have as a result, discrimination and the social inequity it produces. Therefore, efforts to reduce prejudice are well advised to take the social context into consideration when focusing on the individuals' attitudes. This is an issue not only found in America but in the whole world. In our global economy requiring functional and respectful relationships between nations, prejudice and stereotypes can be a destructive force both in the world and in individual societies, especially in diverse ones. Prejudice becomes threatening when it reaches its most extreme form, known as Bigotry.